Ayorinde, Christine. Afro-Cuban Religiosity, Revolution, and National Identity. Gainsville: University Press of Florida, 2004.

I found this source scanning through books in a section of the library that contained many titles relating to Santería. Much of the book discusses the political history of Cuba, and the diasporic mixing of religions that created Santería, however she also writes quite a bit about rituals of Santería, including animal sacrifice, healing, spiritual possession, and a small segment about what typically happens during initiation into the “cult” of Ochosi. While most of this book is about the politics of Cuba, and the history of Cuba, the Cuban revolution, and the influence of other countries on the development of Cuba, there are small gold mines of information relevant to my research throughout the book.

Ayorinde herself is hard to find information on, but she writes a little bit about her experiences in her books. She herself is Nigerian, yet her family in Nigeria doesn’t practice Orisha worship. According to personal anecdote, she didn’t know about orisha worship until her journey to Cuba, a country that fascinated her and helped her learn more about their culture, and in turn her own identity. She mostly sources her own interviews with Cuban people and her first hand experience of religious events. She is biased by growing up in a Muslim-Christian family, yet she seems dedicated to bringing the true stories of native Cubans to paper.

Manuel-Núñez, Luis. Santería Stories. New York: Spring Publications, 2006.

I found this source after a discussion with Pat Mardeusz, in which she recommended this book to me. It is a collection of “ancient stories” told in Santería. This book is basically a mythology book collecting legends of Santería all in one place. As a source, it is incredibly useful to me because it not only describes many of the legends of Santería including one with Ochosi, it also provides information on fetishes, power objects, dances, clothing, and offerings of every Santería orisha. This gives me a lot of insight not just into what rituals and altars to Ochosi would look like, but what might be seen on many altars and at many rituals performed in Santería. All in all, this is an invaluable source for my research.

Like many of my sources, there is not a lot of information on Luis Manuel-Núñez. He has written several books on Santería, most notably Santería Stories and Santería: Practical Guide to Afro-Caribbean Magic. He was born in Cuba, and lived there until the age of 10 until immigrating to the United States for his education. It is unclear whether or not he has ever practiced Santería himself, or if he returned to Cuba to do research on Santería after moving to the United States.

Sandoval, Mercedes Cros. Worldview, the Orichas, and Santería. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006.

I discovered this source while looking through the section in the library with many books about Santería. This book covers the development and traditions of Santería, the orisha of Santería, and how Santería functions in the modern world. Sandoval writes at length about the rituals and traditions of many aspects of Santería such as priesthood, paraphernalia, music and dance, beliefs, and practices. She also writes about the orisha of Santería, including Ochosi. Sandoval makes a point to discuss the difference between Ochosi’s presence in Nigeria versus his presence in Cuba, and why he has lost importance in Cuban culture. This writing combined with her discussion of ritualistic practices make this a great resource for my research.

As an author, Sandoval is well known as a writer on Santería. She is a professor emeritus at the University of Miami. She spent her childhood in Cuba, and researched it throughout her teenage and adult years. She attended the University of Havana and the University of Florida, and has spent her whole life studying the religion and culture of Santería. While she is not a practitioner of Santería, she isn’t completely an “outsider”, due to the fact that she was raised in Cuba.

Noah Stommel

Catholic Influence on Soup Tureen Bibliography

Bascom, William R. 1950. “The Focus of Cuban Santeria.” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, Vol. 6, No. 1, 64-68. The University of Chicago Press.

I found this source by searching JSTOR by using the keywords “santeria altar.” Some of the main ideas presented in this article included the discussion of the connection between Santeria and Catholicism. The article went into some depth about a certain level of syncretism that can be seen today between the two religions on the island of Cuba. The article also raised questions of how much Santeria has diverged from its African roots during its presence on the island. Perhaps most importantly, the article stressed the importance of stones in religious practices of Santeria. These consecrated stones have a strong basis in Catholicism, and are also a key principle in the activation of the soup tureen I am studying.

The author seems to stress the importance that Catholicism has in shaping Santeria to its current state, and that this European religion seems to lay at the core of Santeria. Bascom seems to show slight bias in the way he views Santeria more as a form of Catholicism than as a religion evolved from the African Yoruba. He argues that the use of consecrated stones, as well as herbs and blood allow for Santeria people to separate themselves from Catholic influences and form their own religious identity.

De La Torre, Miguel A. Santería: The Beliefs and Rituals of a Growing Religion in America. Grand Rapids & Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2004.

I found this book when skimming shelves in the Santeria section of the library. Initially, I was searching for a different book, but when I got to the library, I noticed the vast array of sources available, and this book caught my eye. One of the main reasons this book was valuable to my research was that it discussed in detail the impacts that Catholicism has had on Santeria throughout the years and how aspects of Santeria can be clearly linked to Christian influence. Because I intend to show the influence of Christianity on this particular soup tureen, this book will guide me in the right direction by giving me important background information on Christian-Santeria interrelationships, if not so much on the tureen itself.

The author’s perspective in this book shows a pretty critical analysis of the ways in which Santeria has been changed and continues to be shaped by forces in Christianity. The author allows us to see how this particular Yoruba-originating religion has distinguished itself from others due to the heavy integration it has undergone with Christianity. Although this Christian influence could be seen as disruptive to the practice of an Orisha religion, the author explains how this has become natural from Santeria practitioners, and that the religion is so unique because of this mixture.

Fardon, Richard, editor. Counterworks: Managin the Diversity of Knowledge. New York, Routledge, 1995.

This book was brought to my attention through my meeting with Patricia Mardeusz. I found this source particularly interesting because it raised arguments that Santería is not at all a product of Catholicism. I think that this book would therefore offer an interesting counterargument to what I am trying to show with my object analysis. In my analysis, I am trying to show how a soup tureen dedicated to the goddess Obba was originally used in Yoruba religion and the differences seen in its uses in Santeria due to the influence of Catholicism. However, this book’s claims would try to dismember my argument altogether, by insisting that Catholicism plays no role whatsoever in the practices of modern Santeria. I think it would be interesting to contrast this book’s arguments with information from other sources that supports my thesis.

Ultimately, Fardon is staking this claim in a small section of his book. This section is dedicated to showing how natives argue against many scholars’ beliefs that Santeria evolved under heavy Catholic influence. As Fardon quotes from a priest of Chango, “this religion is not Catholicism, and it has nothing to do with it. The origin of this religion is in the forests of the country previously called Yorubaland, better known today as Nigeria” (Fardon 83). Fardon is trying to instill an understanding that outside perspectives differ greatly from practitioners of Santeria. While perhaps he himself is not arguing completely for or against the viewpoints of the majority of scholars, he brings up other interesting and necessary opinions on this matter that would ultimately contribute to balancing my argument.

Alyssa Falco

Annotated Biography

Abimbola, Wande. “Aspects of Yoruba Images of the divine: Ifa divination artifacts.” Dialogue and Alliance 3, no. 2 (1989): 24-29.

This source was found by using a database, the ATLA Religion Database. The keywords entered in the search were Ifa and Divination. To summarize this article talks about three different tools used in Ifa Divination; the chains, the tray and a container, which does not pertain to my research. He ties the tools into a god, Orunmila, and describes how the tools or artifacts and associated with him. The author talks about what the objects mean and why they are important as well as giving details about what the objects may look like. He states how each object has a certain movement that is important. He gives a little background story of the objects to help better understand them. He was key on characteristics of the gods and how they may have behaved that would have an affect on the board in the way they were represented.

The author himself gave off a tone that was very resourceful. He did not use language that may offend the objects meaning in anyway. He was an outsider with background knowledge that he wished to share with the audience. He wrote in a way to help the reader understand why these objects mean something, and by helping to enhance this, he added in quotes from poems. The author was very informative about meaning and the story behind the artifacts.

Clarke, J. D. “Ifa Divination.” The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 69, no. 2 (1939): 235-56. doi:10.2307/2844391

This source was found using JSTOR. I typed into the search bar of the title of a known article which was African Arts and in that I did a sub search using the words Ifa Divination to then come accross this article. This article can be summarized by an experience that took place in the author’s point of view. The author himself was present at an Ifa Divination ceremony and thus he was able to witness everything and give some sort of background information to the reader based on his previous knowledge. Not only does this article tell an actual story but in the beginning it gives the reader some background information on Ifa himself. Which in turn allows the reader to understand what is going on or why something is going on throughout the story. There were some pictures and charts as well that was accessible to the reader in order to understand what was happening or what some of the vocabulary meant. There is also background information on the Babalawo themselves and what their life might be like while having this profession. Some examples of some couplets and stories that might come up and are recited by the babalawo are also listed with a translation that may be confusing for the reader because of the Yoruba language.

The author tells this story in a way where he is almost in the same position as the reader. By being an outsider. By not actually taking part in the ceremony itself but by reiterating what is going on to then ask the same questions the reader might ask and in turn he may give some answers the reader has based on reading the story. The audience he addresses is to a group of people who have some but limited knowledge of Ifa Divination all together. Making it a little easier for the reader to follow along with what is being done during the ceremony.

Olupona, Jacob K., and Rowland O. Abiodun. Ifa Divination: knowledge, power and performance. N.p.: Indiana University Press, 2016.

This source was found by a request to look up from my professor. I used the library catalog to input the title of the book and was able to access the ebook. This book has a some personal stories inside it. There is a story of a woman going through her own Ifa Divination ceremony. She goes into detail about the things she experiences with the babalawo. Not only does it have primary sources as the stories being told first hand, but it also has essays from scholars that go on to give their professional thoughts about the process as well. The stories that are being told are what make the whole meaning of what the scholars say about this process from an outside perspective, really make the idea come alive to the reader and allow the reader to fully understand in two different ways, personally and professionally.

The author himself doesn’t ever make the reader feel like they should feel poorly about this process of Ifa Divination. He doesn’t deliver the stories in a way to try and persuade the reader from one side to another. He simple tells the story with the detail necessary to get the full picture. He writes the article that is in somewhat of an essay form but also in a personal informal way as well. He has some points that are studies that show research and then he has some personal experiences where he was able to have first hand experience in this ceremony.

Dan DellaPasqua

Bibliography of sources which research spirit possession among African Diaspora religions.

Matory, J. L. Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism, and Matriarchy in the Afro- Brazilian       Candomblé. N.p.: Princeton University Press, 2005.

I discovered “Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism, and Matriarchy in the Afro-Brazilian Candomblé while using the keyword spirit possession on google scholar. This source is heavily illustrates Afro-Brazilian Candomblé by examining its routes and how transnationalism effected this religion as a whole. However, this source does outline many practices in Diaspora religion and the underlying mechanisms and intentions behind those practice .

This source is from an ethnographic point of view. On this note, the information is neutral and the content is research based. The tone of the author is anthropologic, using cultural relativism to talk about the culture in a way which aims to depict the true nature of the religion from a natives viewpoint.

Matory, J. L. Rival Empires: Islam and the Religions of Spirit Possession among the Ọ̀yọ́- Yorùbá. N.p.: Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association, 1994.

I found this source using the keyword spirit possession within the Bailey Howe Library research database. This source directly examines spirit possession among Yoruba people, with a specific focus on possession among women. This source outlines motives behind possession, and how this helps to shape character and identity.

The source is written by Matory, an accomplished anthropologist. Matory writes strictly research based books where most of the information is from credible sources or first hand experience. With this being said, the information published is not biased it is ethnographic research aimed to published research regarding spirit possession within a broader religion.

Matory, J. L. Sex and the empire that is no more : gender and the politics of metaphor in Oyo Yoruba religion. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994.

This sources was recommended to me by Doctor Vicki Brennan, a professor at the University of Vermont. In this source Matory makes a case for the existence of “meta-tropes” of gender in Yoruba spirit possession, illustrating these practices are deeply embedded in Oyo politics. Matory explains possession within the social and political context of local government, as in the case of traditional Songo and Yemoja possession in Oyo Yoruba religion. While doing this Matory broadcasts a community’s negotiation of personal power and the metaphors of gender among priests and priestesses.

Matory Writes from a non biased view point, providing factual information with wise anecdotes and metaphors to help understand difficult ideas which are foreign to our culture. Matory writes and researches with the intention of understanding, therefore the information published is accurate not only factually, but to the culture being researched as well.

Eli Van Buren

The symbolism of the head has a very powerful meaning in Yoruba and the African Diaspora religions’ culture. It is said that one has two heads: the outer spiritual head and the inner spiritual head. I don’t really care about the outer head. The inner spiritual head is physically represented in the Ile Ori, or the “House of the Head.” I chose to study the Ile Ori in the Spirited Things exhibition because I’d like to realize why ancient Yoruba peoples put such a strong emphasis on the head and how those practices translated to Haitian Vodun across generations and the Atlantic ocean. The inner head is so central to Afro-Atlantic spirituality that people would almost entirely cover their Ile Ori with cowrie shells, the equivalent to plastering the steering wheel of your car with dollar bills. In Black Atlantic spirituality, the head is closely tied to the concept of Ifa; fate or destiny. In understanding the significance of something so culturally important, one can see into the values of a culture to gain a view of a much broader concept: how this specific culture approaches one of humanity’s greatest spiritual questions about fate, destiny, and free will.

A couple class readings evidence and answers can be pulled from include The Yoruba World by Drewal, Pemberton, and Abiodun, as well as Afro-Caribbean Spirituality: A Haitian Case Study by Karen McCarthy Brown. The former article touches on the importance of the inu ori (inner head), ile ori, and the individuality associated with both. “The privacy and uniqueness of a person is the theme of the ile ori (‘house of the head’)…the object holds a symbol…of a person’s inner, spiritual essence.” (Drewal Pemberton Abiodun 27) In contrast to expressing a person’s individuality, the inu ori has much to do with spirit possession; orisa inhabiting one’s head and body. The Haitian case study can lend some insight into showing what methods and symbols have changed from traditional Yoruba worship to Vodun in the context of possession. Both of these two articles provide a wealth of information as a base for my continued external research to expand upon.

To find some answers, or at least the information I need to form my own answers, I should consult our UVM library to find some published sources on the Ile Ori. Ideally some sort of in depth analysis of the sculpture, explaining the different parts and meanings of each, though I may need to look through a few sources to find consistencies. Additionally, I am sure Duke University’s African religions website has quite a few articles on what I’m looking for. Context-providing secondary sources could be anything from traditional stories pertaining to the importance of the Ile Ori, to anthropological articles detailing how people relate to their Ile Ori and treat it in an everyday context.

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Wn4-n9Ij01RA9pvItlslwNflXLrl7opU4wnmL0PVLr8/edit?usp=sharing

I am studying the Cuban House for Elegguá. It is a wooden model house covered in red and black beads, a wooden face, and cowry shells. It is a representation of the god Elegguá or Eshu who is the crossroads god. Elegguá has the power to make all things happen. He represents all the possible paths of life. He is the messenger for all Orisha (gods). I am researching this object because I want a better understanding of how the crossroads work in the Cuban Santeria religion, and what sociological significance they hold. Understanding the sociological significance of the crossroads will help my reader understand the indigenous concepts of power and how western society demonizes what they cannot fully understand.

In class, we have talked on multiple occasions about Eshu and his powers as the crossroads god. Elegguá/ Eshu is this little god who has the ability to make life problematic or painless. Elegguá has power over everyone due to the fact that he is the messenger for all Orishas. In Flash of the Spirit Thompson talks about Eshu and his characterization as “ ‘The devil’ ”(Flash19) by missionaries. Thompson then continues to describe Eshu and show the reader that he isn’t “The Devil” but is “Outwardly mischievous but inwardly full of overflowing grace”(Flash 19). Thompson caps it off by saying that he cannot be characterized even by his own people “Even his names compound his mystery” (Flash 19). This is due to the fact that Eshu has many different names such as Eshu, Elegbara, Elegguá, and Elegba. He is known as “The childless wanderer” (flash 19) or “owner of power”(flash 19). It is incredibly interesting how Eshu has this power that connects all of these followers with their gods and for the most part binds their society together.

To fully develop my understanding of Elegguá/Eshu and indigenous concepts of power I am going to look at articles on Eshu to increase my understanding of his responsibilities and his ties to other Orisha. I would like to look at journals and recordings of Elegguá festivals and ceremonies so that I can build background knowledge. Finally, I hope to find some sort of interview with a religious figure in which questions are asked about the significance of Elegguá/ Esu in these religions.

Jack Bechtold

I am studying the Votary sculpture for Esu found in the Sacred Arts of the Black Atlantic exhibit. The sculpture is carved from wood, stands two feet tall, and features Esu, with a typical Janus-like projection from the rear of his head, riding a horse and surrounded by ritual assistants. I would like to further understand a concept briefly outlined in the sculpture’s description found in exhibit’s website, the concept of Esu and other Orisha being visually depicted as foreigners. This topic will better allow myself and readers to understand some of the blending and hybridity that occurs in Yoruba religion and culture.

Johnson’s “Syncretism and Hybridity” is particularly relevant to my research. In his writing, Johnson notes that, “This [hybridity] has value for students of religion because it reminds us to distinguish the deliberate efforts towards combining parts of various religious traditions from unintentional or unconscious or interpenetration. “Syncretism and Hybridity” and other writings will allow me to better understand and explain the concept of visual depiction of Esu and other Orisha as foreigners.

To aid my research, I will need to utilize several sources. Primary sources I can utilize include other depictions of Esu or other Orisha as hailing from a foreign land or culture. Other useful sources include documents and readings on cultural blending and hybridity. Sources containing detailed descriptions of the construction and meaning of details in an Esu statue, such as the one found on the Sacred Arts of the Black Atlantic website, will be extremely helpful in furthering my knowledge on the subject.

I am studying an alter crown for Yemoyá from the Santoriá religion. I’m studying this because I want to discover how the object is used, and how it differs from other crowns in the Santeriá religion and how it differs from the crowns in other Yoruba religions, as well as looking at the differences in the crowns at differing levels in the hierarchy and royalty within the gods. The crown is an important part to these religions and to the way that they are used within families and their altars, which is what makes studying the symbolism of the crowns so interesting. Through researching these questions, I will be able to help the reader understand the symbolism of the crown and what makes them so important as well as looking at the different types of crowns and how they differ in the different religions.

Crowns play a role in many of the religions and altars that we have been studying, so this connects my object and the questions I am asking about them perfectly as I am asking about how the crowns differ across the religions that we are studying. When we look at the religions that we have been studying we generally see the crowns in two different places, we either find them on altars as crowns for the soup tureen, or we find them being used as crowns for sovereigns.  “Crown, Ekiti, 19^th-20^th century. The conical beaded crown with veil symbolizes the inner spiritual head of the kind and links him with all his royal ancestors who have joined the pantheon of gods.”  (Drewal, Pemberton & Abiodun, p. 32) This is a demonstration of a crown symbol in another yoruba related religion, which could be used to show the reader the symbolism of the crown and what makes them so important in the religions.

To find information about crowns I will need to use many different resources as I am not just looking at one religion in particular. So, to find enough information I will be looking for articles about them, if I could find something that is written by an altar maker or someone who makes crowns that would be ideal. My secondary sources could be various books or other articles written about the altars or religions to help me to contextualize the types of crowns for that specific religion. If I could find a documentary that studies the altars that would also help to contextualize the altar crowns in relation to their importance with the other parts of the altars.

-Sam Brady

Noah Stommel

I am studying a soup tureen dedicated to the goddess Obba, wife of the thunder god Shango. This tureen is bright pink and is decorated with beads and cowrie shells in symmetrical patterns. This tureen is intended to symbolize the significance of a legend in which Obba was tricked into cutting off her ear by her co-wife, which she then served to Shango in a stew. Of course, rather than an ear in the tureen, traditional stones and cowrie shells would be placed inside to activate it. I am interested in finding out how this tureen is activated in context by people of Yoruba and Santeria faiths. Answering this question will help readers to understand the importance of key aspects of altar activation in Yoruba-inspired religions, as well as the value of the roles a tureen like this one might play in the lives of a dedicated Yoruba or Santeria practitioner.

Answers to these questions may emerge out of several of the class readings, including “The Yoruba World,” by Drewal, Pemberton, and Abiodun, which discusses the importance of Ase in activating art forms in Orisha religion. Ase is the life force possessed by every single thing in this world. Ultimately, “existence, according to Yoruba thought is dependent upon it; it is the power to make things happen and change” (Drewal, Pemberton & Abiodun, p. 16). Consequently, Ase has a big influence on the power of art in Orisha religion, as elaborated up in “Ase: Verbalizing and Visualizing Creative Power Through Art,” by Rowland Abiodun. Specifically related to my object of interest is a reading called “Face of the Gods: The Artists and Their Altars,” by Robert Farris Thompson, which cites an example of tureens symbolizing the presence of multiple orisha, given authority through the placement of stones and within the tureens themselves, similarly to the one in the museum.

In the library, I intend to find further sources to help me find the answer to the question of how this tureen is used by people of Yoruba and Santeria faiths, and how contextualization may influence activation and importance in honoring Obba. One source I intend to consult could be a catalogue of religious artifacts significant to Orisha religions of the Atlantic. Looking through such a catalogue would also give me insight into how similar items may be activated to be of religious significance. Films that investigate first-hand how these items are utilized would also be very valuable in discerning how Yoruba people and their descendants use tureens in their religion. Secondary sources would also be important for conducting research, as they provide an analysis of primary sources that could therefore be helpful for forming ideas. Articles and reviews on films or exhibits are great ways to gather a richer understanding of the items we are trying to learn more about.

I am researching the Gelede Mask because I want to find out more about the complex nature of gender roles in Yoruba culture and investigate how different symbols in the Gelede mask are linked to gender relations. The Gelede mask depicts a woman’s face with a snake curling around the top of her head, a red-eyed warthog arched across the top of the mask and the figure of a hunter behind it. This mask is a staple in the Gelede Society, a group made up primarily of males, although each chapter is typically led by a female. The members join in effort to sort through problems that arise in their lives and others’–the biggest problem they deal with is impotency, thought to be caused by witches. This mask would typically be worn by a member of the society as they carry out a ritual to convince the witches in their lives to use their powers for good instead of evil. The face on the mask is intended to represent a beautiful woman, which helps influence the witches.

In Professor Abiodun’s article, Àṣẹ: Verbalizing and Visualizing Creative Power through Art
, the idea that power can come from visual art (especially sculpture) was discussed in depth, and that reminded me of my studies with the Gelede mask. Abiodun discussed the power visual art, such as intricate masks, has to create change/make things happen. He states that “Yoruba artists have . . . a special kind of understanding of a person, thing, or phenomenon. This is the source of an aesthetic consciousness with witch the artist must perceive the individualized form, color, substance, rhythm, outline, and harmony of a subject” (311). This special understanding is what gives the symbols on the Gelede mask the power to influence witches and create good change. Visual art is a powerful phenomenon in Yoruba culture–the symbols created on the Gelede mask are linked to gender relation both within the Gelede Society and in the general atmosphere of Yoruba culture.

To complete my research on the Gelede mask, I’ll need many primary sources such as interviews, films, and books written by people who have firsthand experience with the Gelede society. Secondary sources are also going to be very helpful, such as articles written by professors and other scholars that analyze the firsthand experiences and produce helpful insights about the symbols in the mask and how they are linked to the gender relations in the society. A combination of both of these types of sources should help me complete my research and answer my research question.