Jack Bechtold

10/30/17

TAP: Religions of the Black Atlantic

Professor Brennan

I will be talking about the Cuban Santería god Eleggua and specifically an artifact of Eleggua in the Flemming museum. This artifact is the house of Eleggua. Eleggua is the Cuban god of the crossroads and of entrances. I chose Eleggua and his house because of its odd placement in the exhibit, and because of the detailed craftsmanship that caught my eye as I first saw this piece. This object is a Cuban style house ornately decorated with beautiful red and black beads these beads are arranged in a way that transforms the exterior of the house into a piece of art. These beads are arranged in patterns that add something to the house called ashe the best way it can be translated is a life force. To cap it all off the above the entryway of this house is a stone face of Eleggua that has his eyes, nose, and mouth are made from cowry shells. this house is dominated by the colors red, white, and black. These colors represent Eleggua. the way in which red, black, and white are brought into this piece is unique. this house’s structure was built with wooden walls and ceilings, this wood is painted a specific color depending on the part of the structure. the walls and ceiling of this house are painted red. the house itself sits on a dual-layered base. This base is consists of two boards that have been glued together. the top board is painted the same red as the house was. on top of being painted red, this board has a cut out in it for the dimensions of the house. the bottom board is painted entirely black. Makes the floor and shadows in the house black.  The house is then outlined in cowry shells which used to be a form of currency in Nigeria and other Yoruba dominated lands, this use of shells is supposed to show wealth, status, and power. This house in itself is a shrine. It is Eleggua and it is a symbol of the crossroads themselves. The fact that this artifact is at the entryway of the museum exhibit has meaning as well. you are supposed to pray to Eleggua before you enter a house, and in the setting of an exhibit of African religions, you need to pray to Eleggua so that he may open the door to allow you to enter and see all the secrets of his world.  In this essay I will provide some background on the Cuban Santería religion, then I will explain its ties to the Yoruba religion, indigenous concepts of power, and how western society demonizes that which they do not understand through Eleggua and his house.

    What is Cuban santería and who is Eleggua? Cuban Santería is one of the most popular religions in the “Black Atlantic”. The religions of the Black Atlantic are the religions that came from the African slave trade. during the slave trade, many of the Africans taken to the colonized islands of South America were people of the Yoruba faith. upon getting to Cuba there were Africans from all over the western shore of the Africa itself. these people had a multitude of versions of faith. While under the constant oppression of slavery these people came up with Cuban Santería. Cuban Santeria is a religion based on indigenous power concepts. There is a multitude of different gods with different specialties. Eleggua is the god of the crossroads and entrances. he holds the ability to open and close the doorways to our destiny.  worshipers need to appease Eleggua through ceremonies, songs, and rituals to make him inclined to help you.  let’s say for example you need to Babalú Ayé the god of disease and epidemics because you have a child that is sick. If you do not appease Eleggua then he might not be inclined to open the doorway for communication between you and Babalú Ayé. This creates an interesting relationship between the worshiper and the gods. the worshiper has the ability to harness each god to ask for help, but if Eleggua doesn’t want to help then there is nothing to be one.

    This mischievous nature has given Eleggua a bad name. In Flash of the Spirit by Robert Thompson, Mr. Thompson talks about Eshu who is the Yoruba version of Eleggua and his characterization as “ ‘The devil’ ”(Flash of the spirit page 19) by missionaries during the “enlightened times” when slavery was justified by colonialism.  Thompson then continued to describe Eshu and show the reader that he isn’t “The Devil” but is “Outwardly mischievous but inwardly full of overflowing grace”(Flash of the spirit page 19). Mr. Thompson caped it off by saying that he cannot be characterized even by his own people “Even his names compound his mystery” (Flash of the spirit page 19). This is due to the fact that Eshu has many different names such as Eshu, Elegbara, Elegguá, and Elegba. He is known as “The childless wanderer” (Flash of the spirit page 19) or “owner of power”(Flash of the spirit page 19). It is incredibly interesting how Eleggua has this power that connects all of these followers with their gods and for the most part binds their society together.

    Eleggua has been mischaracterized as the devil by Christians in general because of a lack of understanding on the Christians part to understand the use of indigenous concepts of power that is crucial to understanding, not just Cuban Santería, but all Afro- Atlantic religions. according to Mr. Falola and Ms. Genova and their work on Orisa Yoruba Gods and Spiritual Identity in Africa and the Diaspora. In the Yoruba religion, Eshu was one of if not the first divinities created by Olodumare who is “(The supreme being) the source, origin, and creator of all beings, including divinities,” (Page 129).  If this is true then Eleggua may have had a hand in creating the world and man. considering this Eleggua cannot be the devil because he is both benevolent and malevolent, while the devil is only malevolent.  If Eleggua really was the devil, antichrist, Apollyon, Beelzebub, etc. Then do you think he would have helped Olodumare create the world, the other divinities, or help all the people whose messages and prayers he does relay? It doesn’t really seem like the shoe fits.  The paradox in this idea is “that can a creature be more powerful than his creator,” (Yoruba Gods and Spiritual Identity in Africa and the Diaspora page 131). Eleggua has this power given to him by Olodumare that gives him complete control over the communications sector of religious communication, which makes him so powerful that he has some sort of free will that he likes to exercise by being both benevolent and malevolent.

    In Santería there are differences in the story, but the message is basically the same. according to my sources like Santería Enthroned by David H. Brown.  Eleggua was created by the all-powerful God Obatala who is the “Owner of all heads” (Santería Enthroned page 126) or the owner of all destinies. In the Santería religion, you are thought to have an inner head which is your destiny. Eleggua’s job is to open the doorways to help you find your inner destiny. yet here we are again with the question can the creature be more powerful than his creator? if Eleggua is truly in control of all religious communications and he is a “trickster” then he is going to want to use his powers for benevolent and malevolent things, but that doesn’t make him the devil because he isn’t pure evil. He is as imperfect as the humans he is scribe for.

Eleggua was demonized due to a misunderstanding of indigenous conceptions of power. This could be linked to the demonization of African religions as a whole such as Haitian vodou. The key to understanding religions like these are looking at the gods and the power structure while separating your own concepts of religion.

Brown, D. (2003). Santería enthroned. Chicago (Ill.): University of Chicago Press. pp. 126

I found this book through professor Brennan. She recommended the book to me when I told her I was having trouble finding what I was looking for with the online encyclopedias. The specific passage I am interested in is on page 126. The main idea of this passage is that Elégbá or Ésú has the ability to open or close the road for your prayers, and how crucial the relationship between a believer, Ésú, and Obatalá is.  Obatalá is the all-powerful God, or “owner of all heads” In santería “Head = Orí = Destiny and Ésú is the guide for destiny’s path.

Mr. Brown has an interesting perception of this relationship. He is looking at this from a very functional standpoint. If you are trying to find your destiny through your inner head then you need to have Ésú open up that road and lead you along the path to your destiny. Throughout my reading of this book Professor Brown has placed Christianity as the origin for these Afro-Cuban religions which may be his bias, but his theory on Ésú seems incredibly sound.

Mason, M. (2004). Living Santería: Rituals and Experiences in an Afro-Cuban Religion. pp.7, 95, 96.

I discovered this book in the library while looking through the books that professor Brennan had put on reserve. The pages in Living Santería: Rituals and Experiences in an Afro-Cuban Religion that I selected are talking about Elégbá or Ésú and how his ability to open the road to your destiny is not the only thing he does. in general, it means the future or he can hurt or help specific aspects of the future. Elégbá or Ésú doesn’t have to and isn’t just a tour guide to your destiny he is at the end of the day known as “the trickster”.

Mr. Mason seems incredibly similar to David Brown and even dedicates the book to him and a couple others. I believe that Mr. Mason and Mr.Brown are cut off the same branch. He is scientifically analyzing the Santería rituals and trying to pull out little pieces to later be used to build the ground on which Santería stands, but that I the reader cannot see yet. From the reading that I have done so far, I cannot see any bias in Mr. Mason’s writing.

Falola, T. and Genova, A. (2005). Orisa Yoruba Gods and Spiritual Identity in Africa and the Diaspora. 1st ed. Trenton, NJ 08607: Africa World Press, Inc., pp.129-139.

I discovered this book in the library while looking through the books that professor Brennan had put on reserve. This book was meant to show similarities and differences between Cuban Santería and Yoruba with regards to their views on Elégbá. In the section of this book that I read. Mr. Falola and Ms. Genova were arguing against all of the demonizing done to Elégbá by mainly Christian scholars. The fact that he has a power that rivals that of the all-powerful god and how his ability to be benevolent and malevolent at the same time makes him the devil.

Mr. Falola and Ms. Genova were fighting bias in this section. They were using facts to undo the demonization of Elégbá that happened when foreigners didn’t understand him or the culture he was a part of.

Thompson, Robert Farris. 1984. Flash of the Spirit. New York City, New York: vintage books.

I was introduced to this book in the Religions of the Black-Atlantic class. it is one of our main sources. This book talks about African and Afro-American art and philosophy. in the section I used specifically it talks about the Yoruba God Eshu as Mr. Thompson highlights the flaws in the argument that Eshu is the devil.

Mr.Thompson could be considered bias in the way that he is arguing against one way of thinking. I personally don’t see him being bias in his writing. I see him using facts to dismantle a bias argument.

Stepping into the Fleming Museum’s Santería birthday throne, your eyes are overwhelmed with bright colors, sparkling fabrics, beaded objects, shiny crowns. Closest to the viewer, perched on the ground, the simple altar of Ochosi sits. This altar somewhat contrasts all of the elegant and elaborately decorated altars that are raised up high in the air; Ochosi’s altar is rather plain, save for his signature blue, gold, and coral beads.

Ochosi’s shrine, while simple, is also beautiful. A grey ceramic bowl sits on the ground, but holds inside a bow and arrow, and a spear adorned with those blue, golden, and coral beads that seem to draw light to them. A string of these beads of all different shapes and sizes circle the bowl, bringing dimension to the simple ceramic shape. Beside the bow and arrow, a pair of metal black manacles sit menacingly, as if daring its audience to challenge the forces of justice. A pear-shaped calabash, adorned with beads, shells, and blue ribbons rests on the floor next to the ceramic bowl: hollow, but secretive about what might be inside. A simple silk rug sits underneath the bowl and and the calabash, half a deep blue, and half golden. Next to the altar is also a horsehair whip, the handle embedded with Ochosi’s beads. This whip is unusual, as it is usually only given to orisha, or gods, of higher status, such as Obatala, Yemaya, Oya, and other royalty. Normally, Ochosi isn’t considered royalty at all, which makes this whip an abnormality. Although the altar of Ochosi has all of these beautiful and intricate details, it’s not particularly eye-catching, especially compared to the loud and embellished altars on display in the birthday throne.

I chose to study the altar of Ochosi because it called out to me. It’s the altar closest to its audience, yet it seems barren and small compared to other altars. This was what intrigued me most as I studied the altars in the Santería birthday throne. As I learned more about Ochosi, I became interested in studying how he is worshipped – what his altars look like, how his rituals are performed. In this essay I will first provide some background on Ochosi, then I will explain briefly how Santería altars are made and how they function, and what is known about altars to Ochosi.

Ochosi, sometimes spelled Oshossi or Oxossi, is the Yoruba orisha of hunting and justice. With the passage of time and with the slave trade bringing practitioners to and from other countries, Yoruba religion has spread to different cultures to form religions such as Santería, Vodou, and Candomble. This is called the African diaspora, and it refers to the spread of new religions formed by followers of Yoruba adapting to and including new cultures in their worship. Ochosi isn’t an orisha easily found – his name appears in many books, but only to mention him in passing as one of the great warrior orisha. The main legend known about Ochosi is one in which he hunts a quail to present to the gods, but his mother cooks it and eats it instead. Ochosi catches another quail, and asks for his arrow to pierce the heart of the thief who stole the first quail, and is distraught when he sees his own arrow land in the chest of his mother (Sandoval 2006, 286) (González-Wippler 2004,50-51). This tale demonstrates Ochosi’s talent at hunting and his passion for justice – two of the main attributes that he exemplifies.

Ochosi is also known for his relationship to other Orisha, particularly Osun. Osun is the orisha of iron and the forge. Mythology about Ochosi and Osun varies – some stories say that they’re brothers, but other stories maintain that they are simply very close friends. Regardless of the details, all stories place significance on the fact that these orisha are very close. The legendary blacksmith Osun forges weapons such as bows, swords, and spears, and the great hunter Ochosi uses them. The altar to Ochosi as seen in the Fleming Museum is unique in that it touches the altar of Osun, signifying their close relationship – no other altars are touching in this way.

Altars are very sacred in many religions, and Santería is no exception.`Altars, when activated, can channel orisha. Altars are often activated through song, dance, smells, foods, and more, which is why it is very important that an altar has all of the correct objects, foods, beads, etc. People performing rituals can also become “spirit possessed”, a state in which the spirit of the orisha summoned enters the body of a practitioner. In “Ritual, Discourse, and Community in Cuban Santería” by Kristina Wirtz, she discusses the feeling of a Santería ritual:

“Participants in a tambor drink rum, talk, join in the call-and-response singing, and in addition rhythmically clap, dance, and call out…Indeed, the drunk rhythms, clapping, and dancing, together with the intense sensoria of rum, sweat, heat, and bodies pressed close together certainly ripen physiological conditions for transcendent states in participants.” (Wirtz 2007,110)

Although this quote doesn’t discuss the preparation and work needed to construct an altar, it mentions the feeling of a ritual as something more than just dancing. This is the feeling of ashe – the Yoruba word for life, destiny, and power, which flows through everything. When an altar is prepared correctly, it is able to channel ashe, and the dancing and music of rituals are able to activate ashe within an altar, giving the gods the power to come into the altar, and into the bodies of practitioners.

While there aren’t many recorded altars to Ochosi, I’ve been able to uncover several accounts of what an altar might look like, or what it might have on it. One source maintains “Ochosi resides in a frying pan”, that his altar should have “deer antlers, three arrows, three dog figurines, and a small mirror”, and should be offered “smoked fish, deer, and game birds” (Núñez, 2006, 374-375).  In a conversation with Dr. Matory, to whom this birthday throne is dedicated, he informed me that his experience was that altars to Ochosi are located low to the ground, and are often made with brambles. In this same fashion, another source describes an altar to Ochosi as a “bramblelike sacrificial shrine – dry leafless branches placed in a careful pile on the earth” (Thompson 1983, 58). While some of these reports differ, many have very similar aspects in them that can lead to a general idea of what’s expected in an altar to Ochosi – low to the ground, brambles, a bow and arrow, and smoked game.

In modern times, Ochosi has lost significance to many people. In our discussion of Ochosi, Dr. Matory explained that hunting has become much rarer as a form of work, and is also known as work for people of lower class, who aren’t often represented as much as people of upper classes. These factors may have contributed to why worship and altars devoted to Ochosi have become much harder to find. Many scholars support this claim, suggesting that: “undoubtedly, Ochosi lost importance in Cuba because hunting as a profession lost importance” (Sandoval 2006, 288). In a world run by modern agriculture and trade, not many people earn a living through hunting anymore, and not many people build altars specifically dedicated to Ochosi anymore.

My goal in this analysis was to discuss background on Ochosi, the work that goes into creating altars in Santería, and altars to Ochosi. Discussion of Ochosi opens up even more questions – what about the rest of the orisha? What happens when altars are activated? How has the spread of Yoruba through the slave trade affected its influence in Santería? Even this small altar to a minor orisha found in the Fleming Museum can open up a whole new world of information and discovery about a religion with incredibly far reaching roots – a religion that most people aren’t even aware exists.

Bibliography:

Ayorinde, Christine. Afro-Cuban Religiosity, Revolution, and National Identity. Gainsville: University Press of Florida, 2004.

González-Wippler, Migene. Santería The Religion. New York: Harmony Books, 1989.

Manuel-Núñez, Luis. Santería Stories. New York: Spring Publications, 2006.

Sandoval, Mercedes Cros. Worldview, the Orichas, and Santería. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006.

Thompson, Robert Farris. Flash of the Spirit. New York: Random House, 1983.

Wirtz, Kristina. Ritual, Discourse, and Community in Cuban Santería. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007.

Alyssa Falco

Ifa Divination isn’t an altar, it’s not part of an altar. It doesn’t belong on an altar. So instead when it’s in a museum where altars are present it gets represented on the wall and in a case. It hangs on the left wall in the room with the Haitian vodou altar. What makes me curious, is that divination is a Yoruba religion practice. Then I notice it’s tucked behind a long display case. This brown wooden tray sits back behind the case. It wouldn’t be the first object you notice walking into the room. Then as I walk closer, the detail of the 4 inch board starts to become more vivid. There are faces and there’s animals, looks like armadillos and horses, and designs that are unknown but have a snake structure to them. The details on the face are flat and smooth. The grooves along the face are deep. But what’s different is that each design looks like it’s pointed towards the middle. Like something should be demonstrated there, like a stage for a show. But the center in blank. Nothing but smooth, hard, brown wood. The whole board is about a foot and a half by a foot and a half and about 1-2 centimeters thick. There are two big faces, the biggest face at the top of the board. It has a flat nose and big protruding eyes. When looking at the board it’s the first carving that really pops out. I notice there is some symmetry that is on the board. The faces are across from each other, then there are the snake like designs on the left and right side of the board and then there are people and animals that looked scattered at first but then when you take a closer look you notice that they have some sort of pattern. There are two people, one of each sex, embracing on either side of the big face and they each have some sort of animal around them. Then there are other people around the board looking like the animals or the objects next to them have some sort of purpose next to them. Then as I read the description there are more parts that are described with this tray. There were two more items listed; pair of divination chains and the divination tapper. It then goes on to describe this thing, a babalawo or what they also called it the “father of mysteries” so of course this “father of mysteries” is just, that a mystery to me. So naturally with my curiosity getting the better of me I wanted to know more about what these mysteries were that the secrets of the babalawo. As I continue to read the description there is mention of Ifa, the first of the diviners. This again makes me wonder what the story is behind these diviners, what do they do? The description mentions that they have to memorize 256 odus. Which were poems, tales and prescriptions from the god Ifa himself. This was something that baffled me. Who could possibly remember that many poems, let alone some of them being stories. To me that was just insane. Naturally my curiosity grows. Then I take a look at these object, the chains and the tapper that is being described in the article. The chains are in a glass display case to the left of the tray. One of the chains didn’t really look like a chain. The other one however, was a made out of actual chain links. This one made sense to me, the small, grey chain links that is made out of chain links. At one end of the chain links there is one washer, one small white shell and one small brown shell. The other end has one bell, a small white shell and one small brown shell.  I noticed these bigger black shells that were present in each of the two chains. There was 8 in both of them. Then between the fourth and fifth shell there was a bigger gap that split the chain into two halves with four shells on each half. This again made me curious. How could these chains fit with this board. Do they hang them? Do they form some sort of pattern that corresponds to the board?  Each shell on the first chain is separated by a yellow blue pattern of beads. At one end there is a washer and one small white shell. On the other end there is one small bell present. The questions continued to fill my head. Now I look at the tapper, also found in the same display case as the chains. Now my head really has some questions. This tapper is different, nothing like I’ve ever seen before. First, thing I notice is the huge head that this man has. It’s a giant head. Looks like it hold so much information. The man sits upon this upside down cone. I go back to his head, he’s bald, he has this one protruding thing about his left ear. Almost looks like a tuft of hair. His head making him look very top heavy, if it were to be picked up. His neck is also incredibly long and skinny and he has a necklace around it. He hold something in each hand, looks like something flat and square in one hand and in the other he holds something to write with. All of this is made out of carved, solid, polished wood. If it’s name has anything to do with what it does, then I couldn’t imagine how. I don’t foresee this object being tapped on something. It’s to detailed to oddly shaped to be tapped on something. Just from looking at these objects I don’t know what to think. There are so different from anything I’ve ever seen. I wanted to know more about how these things so different could possibly fit together. Thus the questions soon lead to answers.

I had some background information of Ifa. He was the first of the diviners, so this means that he must be the oldest babalawo. As I continued my research another god kept popping up, Orunmila. The book Ifa Divination; Knowledge, power and performance made Orunmila more clear; “ Orunmila refers to exclusively to the deity himself, the name Ifa refers to both the deity and his divination system.” (51). Deity is another term for god, and from this Orunmila and Ifa are the same god, Ifa just refers to this process of divination itself. Therefore when Ifa and Orunmila are mentioned during the divination process, the communication could come from either of the gods. I look at the first of the three objects, an image can be found at the end of this paragraph.  On the top of the tray there was the biggest carved face. This face will represent Eshu, he is the messenger god. Some representation of Eshu is present on every divination tray. This is because Eshu can be known as a trickster as well and to have him on the client’s side so they can get their information from Ifa then Eshu must be happy and represented as well. Therefore, Eshu is the god the babalawo is connecting to and Eshu is connecting to Ifa to the transfer the information to the babalawo. During Divination, Eshu is faced towards the babalawo, which forms a diameter that gives Eshu no shame in being present on both halves of the diameter, because he is known to be the only god who directly communicates with humans, therefore, they don’t want Eshu to be looked down upon (Dialogue and Alliance 28). There must also be sacrifice giving to Eshu before the divination can start as well. The other designs on the board are never to be constant out of respect for Eshu. Meaning that the other carvings differ from board to board making each one unique (Dialogue and Alliance 26). However, this brought up another question to myself; why would these objects be present in the gender corner or the museum? The other carvings that are part of the board, usually represent other Yoruba life tasks. This would explain the animals, it could be the sacrifices, the loving embrace is reproduction, and so on. The most important carving is Eshu, which is clear that it is important in this Tray. However, this is only one of three very intricate objects.

The chains is the next object that came to my attention, an image can be found at the bottom of this paragraph.The 8 shells on each chain was constant in both, so I did some research on this as well. These chains are used to be tossed on the board and some sort of pattern will come from this. The shells have a smooth side and a rough side. The babalawo uses the chains to cast patterns that will either show the shells facing the smooth side or the rough side, then the number of shells on either side is recorded. There are a total of 16 sections of odu that the babalawo has to work with. Each pattern will represent a different section that the babalawo has to interpret. There are a total of 16 shells or nuts because it is said that when Ifa left earth his children climbed a tree and in return he gave the each 16 nuts (Thompson 34). Another thing that seems to come up with this tree is white powder. This white powder also comes from this same tree and is used during divination to be sprinkled over the tray so the babalawo has something to record the patterns he sees that form from the shells (Thompson 35). There are 8 on each chain and 4 on each half because when the babalawo is recording the patterns the way the possible combinations will equal 16. (http://thewitchesalmanac.com/yoruba/) This is just a faster way to obtain these patterns instead of using just 16 shells off the chain. Most babalawos prefer to use the chains because it is a faster method.

Every Babalawo uses a tapper. An image of the tapper being described can be found at the bottom of this paragraph.  The tapper has a very easy job. It simply summons the gods, Ifa and Eshu. To bring to them their attention that there is a divination going on and they need them to participate. A tapper can have many different looks. It all depends on the artist who made it. Because I don’t have the artist at my disposal, I like to draw some conclusions as to why the tapper may look like this based on my knowledge. I think the size of the head represents that number of odus the babalawo has to memorize. There is so much information that he has to memorize that it makes his head swell with all his knowledge. I believe the flat square object in this hand is a divination board and the other is a tapper as well, but a much smaller version. I think the man himself, represents the babalawo. I did find out why the man sits on a cone like structure. It is actually supposed to represent a tusk, and elephant tusk. In the Yoruba religion the cone is a ideogram for ashe. Ashe is divine power. Which represents all the power that is present and is needed for a divination ceremony. Therefore, the tapper is thus represented in this way (https://collections.dma.org/artwork/5327077). Now that reason for the shape and appearance of these objects is known and how these objects are used, I can finally look at why somebody in the Yoruba religion might want to even have a divination performed for them in the first place and I can look more at the babalawo himself who is a very important man in this ceremony.  

In a normal human life there are some bumps in the road that may need some resolving. So a person may go to therapy and talk with somebody to work through their problems and perhaps get some guidance. Now if we look at people who practice the African Diaspora religion, they do the same thing, but instead of going to see a therapist, they go to see the babalawo. A babalawo is a messenger of sorts. He performs the divination for the client and then he recites what happens in the terms of verses or stories that he must memorize. Each story, or odu, has a meaning, and that meaning will correspond to what is going on in the client’s life. Then sacrifices can be made to try and get the good fortune back. When the babalawo is initiated into this priesthood, after about 12 years of training, he must memorize the 256 odus that can be recited during divination. Now you may wonder how an odu may be displayed during divination, well there are no words that give you hints. There is a chain that is tossed on the divination board, where this marking and reading happens. The chain consists of 8 shells with a smooth side and a rough side. The chain in thrown 16 times and the babalawo marks down on the tray what the results of the shells were when they were tossed, whether or not they landed on the rough side or the smooth side. This pattern will then describe what odu, Ifa is trying to relay to the client. The babalawo must recite what is being said by Ifa and express that to the client without knowing any information about why the client might be there to begin with. This is strictly the job of a babalawo, he performs Ifa Divination is whole life until his time is up. There are many different reasons why somebody might need to have a divination performed.

Ifa divination is a process that is used maybe during a milestone in somebody’s life. For example a newly married couple may go to divination to then look to their future. Somebody might go when they are looking from some insight into a new job they are starting. Maybe they would go if the just had a family member die and somebody else was sick in the hospital and they just feel like they need a change or have no more go fortune left in them. These people then go to this babalawo to have them perform a divination for them. They look to Ifa to give them some hope to hopefully turn their life around or point it in the right direction. This ceremony may often end in a sacrifice that the client might need to do. The sacrifice may be an animal or a gift for Ifa. This sacrifice will be a thanks to Ifa for the knowledge that he gave the client on the future and in hopes for good fortune.

The museum exhibition four different altars that represent each religion. Then there are objects that also fit into each religion based on what they may represent. The divination items can be found in the gender section of the museum. At first this may be very puzzling. However, when you take a closer look at the objects, you can see gender is displayed in them. The tray has carvings of both male and female showing their dependency on one another in everyday life, but also their independence they display. The embracing is needed of both sexes. But then some things there is only one person present at a point in the tray border. Symbolizing that each gender can be independent as well. The tapper itself is also a carving of a man as well. Then for obvious reasons this would fit into gender as well. I mentioned earlier that the tray’s carvings were pointed toward the center as if a show was going to happen. Now that the purpose of the blank middle, it is almost as though there is a show that it happening there. The messages from the gods is being conveyed in the center of this board. Now because the museum is full of altars, we can see that each altar has a show of its own. There are things present on each altar that are there for presentation to the gods they correspond to. In a way this is the same thing going on with the divination board. There is sacrifices that are made for the gods during divination just as there are for the altars. Maybe not a dead animal, but there are things present that are meant to give thanks to the goods, which is that same idea. The idea of divination itself is a ceremony that is for the people but it ties the gods into it as well. By asking them for their help or be asking them for a favor. The presence of an altar is again the same concept. It is made by the people and worshiped by the people because they want a sense of faith that they will have a good life as well. They feed their altars which then feed the gods to ensure a good life. Ifa Divination has the same idea. The people of these religions want to have a good life, they put their faith into their gods just as any other religion would. The objects that are used in Ifa divination put on an excellent performance and allow the people of the Yoruba religion to have faith that they will have a happy life, something that every person wants. Good fortune and a happy life.

One of the most striking pieces displayed at the Spirited Things: Sacred Arts of the Black Atlantic is the statue of Esu found at the front of the exhibition. A picture of the statue can be found at the bottom of this post, courtesy of the Sacred Arts website. The sculpture is carved from wood, measures twenty-two inches tall, and rests on a circular base with a diameter of about ten inches. Esu, the trickster orisha, is depicted on horseback, surrounded by ritual assistants. The figures surrounding Esu are far less intricate than the orisha himself, who is flush with detail and variety.
The purpose of this essay is to examine the details of this representation of Esu, provide analysis of the individual components of the statue, compare this Esu to other representations of the orisha, and to examine how this Esu corresponds with the African Diaspora. The significance of Esu’s position, possessions, and ritual assistants will be examined. Another focus of this essay will be the physical depiction of Esu and its deeper meanings.
Esu is one of the most important of the Yoruba orishas. He is not, as previously thought, only associated with decisions and not a part of daily human life. On the contrary, “Almost every traditional household, clan or village, every devotee (irrespective of the cult to which he or she belongs) has the symbol and worship of Esu,” (Awolalu 29).
It is through Esu that people can contact and request assistance from the other orishas. Esu, a messenger, carries messages between the orishas and humans. However, Esu is a malevolent trickster. Esu sometimes carries messages to their destination, but sometimes willfully forgets them or takes them to the wrong destination. When this occurs, havoc is wreaked in the mortal world. Esu is not a fool or an easily duped trickster, but a powerful orisha who commands respect and has harsh consequences for those who fail to show it (Ogundipe 193). Esu must be appeased or he is more likely to be unreliable in his messenger duties.
At this point, it is important to stress that Esu is not an evil, malevolent, or harmful orisha. Esu has often been misinterpreted as the devil, or being a purely evil being. “He tempts people, but that does not mean that he is against the human race or will do only harm,” (Awolalu 28).
Esu is also the lord of the crossroads, beginnings, and endings. When a person faces a crossroads or difficult decision, Esu is present and guides travelers. However, he may lead them down the wrong path. The duality found in Esu’s nature (he can either help or harm) is reflected in physical depictions of Esu. Esu is often depicted with a protrusion from the rear of his head, ranging from a serpent (as used in this stature) to more phallic depictions (Ogundipe 157).
Esu is a connection between Yoruba and Western religion. Janus, the Roman god, has a role similar to Esu. Janus is the god of gateways, beginnings and endings, and crossroads, a very similar description of Esu’s duties, minus the messaging. Janus is depicted as having two faces, representing his duality. Esu and his two-headed depictions very similarly represent duality. Depictions of both gods have influenced the other’s depiction since their creation. The meaning and representation of both gods have influenced diasporic religions that have blossomed from Yoruba.
The details of this depiction of Esu shed significant insight into what the creator believed about the orisha. Esu is mounted on a horse, and, although now missing, probably carried a flywhisk in his right hand. Both the horse and the flywhisk signify royalty and military prowess. That Esu is depicted in this manner is indicative that Esu was highly revered among followers of Yoruba. The attendants following Esu are depictions of devout followers, who in real life would be special priests and priestesses dedicated to Esu. These attendants carry various medicinal herbs and other ritual items. Esu’s mounted position and close-at-hand devotees symbolize his power, might, and royalty. In many depictions, Esu is portrayed with long hair, uncommon among Yoruba people except for the powerful and royalty (Ogundipe 171). In most portrayals of Esu, it is clear that he is highly respected and revered.
Esu is often depicted with a protrusion from his head, signifying his duality. In this sculpture, the artist chose to create a serpent emerging from the rear of Esu’s skull. The serpent has its own face, and is devouring a helpless animal. This brutal depiction contrasts to a benevolent humanoid Esu portrayed on the other side. The contrast between the two sides of Esu’s head signifies that Esu can be helpful and resourceful, or can be cruel and damning. The power and might Esu has is exaggerated within this depiction.
One of the most interesting aspects of this depiction of Esu is the humanoid face. This wooden Esu has facial scars why typify a specific people foreign to Yorubaland. Esu is also depicted with a beard typical of the Hausa People. The Hausa mjare a Muslim ethnic group native to northern Africa. However, to the Yoruba, the Hausa are a foreign population. Why would a Yoruba depiction of Esu cast him as a foreigner instead of a native? The conventional dialogue would have Esu depicted as a native and the Yoruba a descendant.
In my research I discovered that it is common for not just Esu but all orisha to be depicted a hailing from a foreign land. The Yoruba had great respect for their foreign neighbors. Depicting their gods with characteristics typical of their neighbors is a clear-cut example for the love and respect the Yoruba showed to foreigners. This depiction of Esu is therefore helpful in establishing that the Yoruba were kind to neighbors. Upon further examination, this claim is reinforced by evidence showing Yoruba respect for trans-local persons.
Unlike many other religions, Yoruba and most diasporic religions are very welcoming of foreign persons and concepts. Diasporic religions often incorporate symbols, signs, and powers from other religions such as Christianity into their practice. In some cases, this was just an easy way to refresh old concepts. In others, followers were able to worship their religion inconspicuously where it was not tolerated. Examples of rephrasing Yoruba doctrine into Christian terms include Santeria using Our Lady of Charity and Cobre as a representation of the orisha Oshun. This flexibility and hybridity were essential to the life and proliferation of many diasporic religions as native Africans expanded across the globe.
This statue of Esu would be used to adorn an indoor shrine. It would be at sacred processions for a specific orisha. It would carry messages from worshippers to the orisha which they hope to communicate with, and would send messages from the spirit world to the mortal one. This statue would appeal for an orisha’s benevolent intervention in the mortal world. Its important duties make this sculpture an essential part of an altar.
The two-foot wooden sculpture of Esu found in the Spirited Things exhibit is rife with intricate detail and symbolic meaning. Every part of Esu’s depiction has deeper meaning than face value. Esu’s prominent position, his follower’s worships, his facial depiction, and his serpent protrusion all have significant meaning and help to establish what the Yoruba people thought and believed in relating to Esu.

Bibliography:
Falola, Toyin. Èṣù : Yoruba God, Power, and the Imaginative Frontiers / Edited by Toyin Falola. Carolina Academic Press African World Series. 2013. pp.18-20

Ogundipe, Ayodele. Esu Elegbara, the Yoruba God of Chance and Uncertainty : A Study in Yoruba Mythology / by Ayodele Ogundipe. 1978, 1978. pp.151-193.

Awolalu, Omosade. Yoruba Beliefs and Sacrificial Rites. 1979, 1979. pp. 28-30

Drewal, Pemberton & Abiodun, The Yoruba World. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York, (date needed), pp. 26-33

I found this excerpt from a book via our class readings list and skimming through until I found any reference to my subject matter. A section in this chapter touches on the fundamental significance of the head and what the ori inu is. The authors go on to write about ile ori (house of the the head) as well as ibori (head container). Including in detail the materials used, as well as how it represents a person’s individuality. This seems like a great resource for providing an introduction to the Ile Ori in my object analysis.

Through this chapter we seem to be looking at strict facts with little room for opinion. I think the reader gets an inside scoop so to speak as Abiodun is a nigerian and practitioner of the religion itself. I think that having three separate authors for a piece helps separate personal opinions from the text.

Desmangles, Leslie G. The Faces of the Gods: Vodou and Roman Catholicism in Haiti. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill & London, 1992, pp. 64-68

I was recommended this book by the librarian when I met with her. We found the book through CAT Quest using the keywords Vodun, Voudou, Vodou, Voodoo, Bonnanj, Bonanj, Zanj, Angels, and Angel. In the cited section the concepts of gwo-bon-anj and ti-bon-anj are described. A remarkable similarity between these personal spirits and one’s ori inu can be drawn. Desmangles goes over many aspects of the “communal self” including how one participates in visible and invisible communities, as well as the many spirits governing one’s human experiences. It may be too early to draw conclusions yet, though at a glance it may appear that the yoruba concepts of ori inu and ifa roughly translated into guardian angel spirits tending their person’s destiny.

Desmangles leaves out some information she considers unimportant. The reader only receives a filtered view of the multiple “compartments of the spirit”, only seeing what Desmangles considers valid/important/relevant enough to be put into her book. To quote her: “…and they need not be discussed here in detail;”(66) this leads me to believe there may be other things that “need not be discussed.” So I may be getting an incomplete picture.

Abimbola, ‘Wande Ifa: An Exposition of Ifa Literary Corpus. Oxford University Press Nigeria, Ibadan, 1976, pp. 113-118

I found this book during my meeting with the librarian as well. I used the keywords Ifa, Ori, and Yoruba in a CAT Quest search. The majority of the book is on various aspects and properties of Ifa, yet one chapter explains the significance of Ori in relation to man’s choice of destiny. A particularly interesting tidbit described is that the Yoruba regard Ori as one of the gods of their pantheon. Abimbola goes on to say that in some ways, Ori is the greatest god of all because Ori is each individual’s personal deity “who is expected to be more interested in his personal affairs than the other gods…”(114). Going off on a tangent here, this reminds me of Haitian Abimbola quotes a great deal of sayings, proverbs, and other yoruba oral literature. Lastly he writes everyone has a destiny even the gods, who will also consult Ifa and Ori to inquire about the course of their destiny.

Abimbola is a yoruba man from Nigeria. He actually wrote this book based off his PhD thesis which he submitted in 1969 to the University of Lagos. He has a lot of first hand experience with yoruba tradition being nigerian and immersed in the religion since childhood. He seems quite credible and if anything gives too much extraneous information. I do not know for sure if he’s a practitioner of orisa worship though I believe it’s a safe assumption.

Beier, U. 1956. Nigeria magazine: Obatala festival, 10-28.

I found this article in the EBSCOhost Anthropology Plus database by searching Obatala AND Rites AND Ceremonies. These keywords gave me a source that was full of information on practices associated with Obatala, not just his background and meaning. Throughout the article, Obatala is referenced as the Great one and the supreme God. He is known to be the father of mankind and of all other gods. He is the figure of seniority and of a higher power. His worshipers are seen to have a great measure of kindness and tolerance in them which symbolizes Obatala as the father of all kinds.

The author of this article references the fluidity of the belief of Obatala. They say how the idea of Obatala creating mankind out of clay is a very widespread idea. The folk tails behind each Orisha can vary among perspectives. The author does a good job examining various perspectives and traditions associated with Obatala.

ROCA, ROGER SANSI. “Catholic Saints, African Gods, Black Masks and White Heads: Tracing the History of Some Religious Festivals in Bahia.” Portuguese Studies 21 (2005): 182-200.

I found this source in JSTOR by searching ‘Obatala OR Oxala’ AND Candomble. These keywords brought together sources that related the religion of Candomble with the Orishas and their meaning to certain festivals or rituals. The article goes into explaining ritual ceremonies for the Orishas and how certain colors and objects represent different Orishas. White and water are significant to Oxala and it is emphasized ceremonies in his name are commonly private. It also emphasizes the role of the higher power leaders and their association with Oxala. The high rank and royal power associated with a king/lord is believed to be correlated with Oxala.

Thompson, Robert Farris. “Face of the Gods: The Artists and Their Altars.” African Arts 28, no. 1 (1995): 50-61.

To find this source I searched JSTOR with the keywords Obatala OR Oxala AND Altars. These keywords brought me to this source that anaylzes altars of certain gods. This article captures a picture of an altar with four objects in it. Each object symbolizes Obatala in a certain way. I chose this as a source because in the description of the altar it analyzes the objects by who they symbolize. Even though a staff symbolizes Obatala in the way that a staff means power and authority. Specifically, in this altar which is meant to protect Obatalas honor eternally, the staff is dedicated to Osanyin, the doctor.

The creator of this altar is a priest of Obatalainitiated in 1970. He has done a variety of studies on the Yoruba culture across the world. The writer of the article is a different person than the creator of the altar itself. His goal is to break down the altar and bring meaning to each of the objects that make it up as a whole. This is done by extensive knowledge of the Yoruba religion. Thompson breaks the objects down into who they represent but he leaves what makes up the objects themselves up for grabs. He even includes a picture of the objects zoomed in but neglects to identify the significance of the materials they are made out of.

Falola, Toyin. Èṣù : Yoruba God, Power, and the Imaginative Frontiers / Edited by Toyin Falola. Carolina Academic Press African World Series. 2013. pp.18-20

I found this book through the UVM Catquest search database. I was particularly interested in the passages found between pages eighteen and twenty of Falola’s work. Here, the author discusses creative representations of Esu. These representations provide background and reference for the sculpture of Esu I am researching.

Professor Falola is a well respected researcher and author/editor of many works focusing on African religions. His perspective is in line with many of the authors discussed in class. Professor Falola approaches his work not from a religious viewpoint, but a historical one, which is helpful when learning about Yoruba.

Falola, Toyin., and Genova, Ann. Orisa : Yoruba Gods and Spiritual Identity in Africa and the Diaspora / Toyin Falola and Ann Genova, Editors. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2005.

I discovered this work through the UVM Catquest search database. I believe the section on historical Orisha worship in Nigeria will be helpful to my research. This section discusses ceremonies and rituals found in Nigerian and Cuban Orisha worship.

Once again I selected a Falola work for my research. Falola’s writing is clear and indiscriminate. It allows the reader to easily comprehend what is being talked about. Once again, Falola’s perspective as an unbiased historian is extremely helpful in understanding subtleties of Esu worship within Yoruba culture.
Ogundipe, Ayodele. Esu Elegbara, the Yoruba God of Chance and Uncertainty : A Study in Yoruba Mythology / by Ayodele Ogundipe. 1978, 1978. pp.89-90

I discovered this book through the UVM Catquest search database. I found that the passages found on pages 89 and 90 of this work to be helpful to my research. Here, the author discusses narratives of Esu. This information is helpful as it provides contextual support to my analysis of the sculpture.

Ayodele Ogundipe provides great insight into the history and practice of Esu worship. The author seems to provide an unbiased depiction of Esu worship. However, the work is from 1978, meaning that it is inevitably dated. Nevertheless, the information contained in this book will be extremely helpful to my research.

Brown, D. (2003). Santería enthroned. Chicago (Ill.): University of Chicago Press. pp. 126

I found this book through professor Brennan. She recommended the book to me when I told her I was having trouble finding what I was looking for with the online encyclopedias. The specific passage I am interested in is on page 126. The main idea of this passage is that Elégbá or Ésú has the ability to open or close the road for your prayers, and how crucial the relationship between a believer, Ésú, and Obatalá is.  Obatalá is the all-powerful God, or “owner of all heads” In santería “Head = Orí = Destiny and Ésú is the guide for destiny’s path.

Mr. Brown has an interesting perception of this relationship. He is looking at this from a very functional standpoint. If you are trying to find your destiny through your inner head then you need to have Ésú open up that road and lead you along the path to your destiny. Throughout my reading of this book Professor Brown has placed Christianity as the origin for these Afro-Cuban religions which may be his bias, but his theory on Ésú seems incredibly sound.

Mason, M. (2004). Living Santería: Rituals and Experiences in an Afro-Cuban Religion. pp.7, 95, 96.

I discovered this book in the library while looking through the books that professor Brennan had put on reserve. The pages in Living Santería: Rituals and Experiences in an Afro-Cuban Religion that I selected are talking about Elégbá or Ésú and how his ability to open the road to your destiny is not the only thing he does. in general, it means the future or he can hurt or help specific aspects of the future. Elégbá or Ésú doesn’t have to and isn’t just a tour guide to your destiny he is at the end of the day known as “the trickster”.

Mr. Mason seems incredibly similar to David Brown and even dedicates the book to him and a couple others. I believe that Mr. Mason and Mr.Brown are cut off the same branch. He is scientifically analyzing the Santería rituals and trying to pull out little pieces to later be used to build the ground on which Santería stands, but that I the reader cannot see yet. From the reading that I have done so far, I cannot see any bias in Mr. Mason’s writing.

Falola, T. and Genova, A. (2005). Orisa Yoruba Gods and Spiritual Identity in Africa and the Diaspora. 1st ed. Trenton, NJ 08607: Africa World Press, Inc., pp.129-139.

I discovered this book in the library while looking through the books that professor Brennan had put on reserve. This book was meant to show similarities and differences between Cuban Santería and Yoruba with regards to their views on Elégbá. In the section of this book that I read. Mr. Falola and Ms. Genova were arguing against all of the demonizing done to Elégbá by mainly Christian scholars. The fact that he has a power that rivals that of the all-powerful god and how his ability to be benevolent and malevolent at the same time makes him the devil.

Mr. Falola and Ms. Genova were fighting bias in this section. They were using facts to undo the demonization of Elégbá that happened when foreigners didn’t understand him or the culture he was a part of.

-Jack Bechtold

Matory, J. Lorand. ms. The Fetish Revisited: Marx, Freud, and the Gods Black People Make.

I found this through the recommendation of Professor Brennan. In this portion of a manuscript chapter written by Professor Matory he speaks of crowns, fly whisks, and how royalism of the gods and of the processes of how they are worshiped, are demonstrated in the different  Santería/Ocha, Brazilian Candomblé, and other Yoruba-Atlantic religions.

Professor Matory has an interesting perspective on this, he looks these religions in both an academic way but also from the way of a practitioner of the religion. The goal of the work is to get the reader to look at the similarities between these Yoruba-Atlantic religions on the topics of royalism and the different types of crowns and other objects that aid in the worshiping of the gods.

Flores-Peña, Ysamur, and Roberta J. Evanchuk. 2011. Santería garments and altars: speaking without a voice. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.

This book was also recommended to me by Professor Brennan for my research. The book narrated by a seamstress from the Santería religion who explains how the garments and crowns worn by initiates into the priest or priestess hood are created and then meaning that is behind the choice in fabric or beading that the seamstress chooses to use. As well as this, the Santería practitioner speaks of the different types of altars for orisha worship and what kind of work goes into them.

The author is writing this from the position of an actual practitioner of the religion trying to educate the public on the process that go into being able to properly worship the gods in a respectful and appropriate way, and the traditions behind them.

Gordon, Jacob U. 1979. “Yoruba Cosmology and Culture in Brazil.” Journal of Black Studies 9 (4): 231–44. doi:10.1177/002193477900900406.

I found this article through JSTOR by searching the various spellings for the yemoya. This article speaks about Yoruba cosmology and culture in Brazil, it gives background on the yoruba culture and cosmology before getting into how it was brought into Brazil and giving information on the various gods and goddess of the religion.

The author is writing this from a very academic standpoint, going over the basic history of the religion and how it entered and has changed since coming to Brazil

-Sam Brady

Seth Epling

Rush, Dana. Vodun in Coastal Bénin. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2013.

I found this book by using Professors Brennan’s recommendation. After she recommended this book, I went to the library and found that this book was a good reference point for the religion of Vodun in the west coast of Africa.  Rush focuses on the fact that Vodou is not a religion of the past. She emphasizes that this book is open ended and not finished. This is because Vodou is always being changed and this book needs to be updated and be discussed. She explains more about the the religion of vodou and not much about the my specific festival, this will be a good reference for the general practices and information about the deities and how they were derived from other religions and cultures.

Dana Rush perspective is one from the outside from research and personal trips. She has an acknowledgement in which she thanks all of the people who have helped her. She feels in debt to these people and for the actual religion of Vodun. This has a bias because she is looking from the outside. She is most likely looking at a glamorised version of the religion, she does have first hand account of the culture because she lived in places like Benin, Togo, and Ghana. I did not see anywhere that said that she is a follower of the religion so the writing and information may have a different view point.

Bay, Edna G. Asen, Ancestors, and Vodun. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2008.

This was the other book that Professor Brennan recommended to me and I sought it out at the library and saw that it had lots of information to offer. This book was more about how art and artist in africa were changing. This is crucial for my research of my object because my object is a piece of metal work, a piece of art. There are sections in  the book about how metal work in Vodun religion has changed.  She has a section devoted to a festival of Hevioso which would be helpful in understanding the use of my scepter in certain festival. She also focuses in Asen, or using metal working to honor spirits or deities. In her work, she also studied the Kingdom of Dahomey which should bring parallels between the two works.

Unlike Rush, Bay seems to have separated her emotions out of the book. She focused strictly on the facts and tried not to put her own bias into the novel. This will influence the work because we are only getting her point of view on the festivals and customs. She uses many pictures and uses them to describe the practices. I do not see any first hand account from people who have lived or follow the religion. It is more of a textbook style of writing, very informational, goes through the history of asen and the ancestors and how that has changed. Her main goal is to inform people of this culture and not to tell a story.

Blier, Suzanne P. “King Glele of Danhomè, Part One: Divination Portraits of a Lion King and

Man of Iron.” African Art 23, no. 4 (October 1990): 42-53. JSTOR (3336943).

I found this article using JSTOR and CATQuest and I used the keywords: Benin, Vodun, and Hevioso. As I was skimming through it, I saw that she uses King Glele, a king from the Kingdom of Dahomey, to describe many rituals and use of certain tools. I found that King Glele used a scepter similar to the scepter I am studying. Both scepters were used to represent the deity Hevioso and similar aspects of the staff were discussed that I can draw conclusions to about my scepter. There are many times where in the article that say King Glele was empowered and fierce like a lion which I could bring connections due to some of the designs in my scepter.

Blier has a mixture of the two other writers. She has points in the article that she is very informative but at other points she is trying to tell a story. She is also an outsider looking in on the religious practices so there are little first hand accounts. She is tellings story brought down the generations by stories not by written accounts. Her goal is to bring those stories to have a meaning in history and relate them to the history King Glele reign. There will be bias in this piece because of the emotion that she puts into the piece. Since she is taking the accounts from other people there may be misunderstanding and that is something to be wary of. She will be converting other people’s words into her own.