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Background

In 1917, the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I. The Selective Service Act was passed soon after to increase the size of the US army (Balkansky, 2018). Even with the draft, however, American men were largely unprepared for combat. This sparked increased dedication to physical education, organized sports, and military training programs in schools to prepare young boys for the military. These programs shaped society’s view of young boys and constructed an image of an ideal American boy- loyal, cooperative, and competitive. This focus on physical education reveals the prioritization of studying children and child development to better the American population. Sports continue to be hyper masculinized and are used to advance gender stereotypes developed during wartime.

Desire for Physical Fitness

Prior to World War I, anthropometry, the study of body measurements, was the major form of research for American physical educators (Park, 2006, p.195). Several studies during the late 19^th century including one performed by William Townson Porter, involving over 33,000 St. Louis school children, concluded that physically fit children “possessed greater ‘mental power’ than others of comparable age” (Park, 2006, p.200). This belief that intelligence was correlated to physical fitness drew attention to the importance of physical education for American youth. G. Stanley Hall and Luther Gulick, playground reform and play advocates, acknowledged the connection between mental and physical strength (Gagen, 2004, p.428). During the early 20^th century, children were recognized and valued as individuals. Accordingly, individual children and the strength of their bodies greatly impacted the American population and the power of the country. Gulick speculated that societies’ principles and strong character could be achieved through muscular conditioning (Gagen, 2004, p. 430). This concept demonstrated that individual physical fitness aided the greater geographic entity, and this fitness would furthermore prove its vitality in the context of war. The benefits of physical fitness were thought to be best developed in academic settings for the youth.

Military Training and Physical Education

Military training and physical education were used to shape young boys into model citizens and soldiers. During World War I, the need for physically fit children increased dramatically and as a result, so did the extent of physical education and sports programs in American schools. Military drills and physical education both offered physical development for students, but the two methods of training were debated. (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.14). Military training was rarely offered in schools before World War I, and secondary schools were not yet regarded as institutions to prepare young boys for war (202 creation of military sports). Beginning in the early 20^th century, various laws were passed to enforce military preparedness in schools, including the Welsh Bill. This bill was passed in New York and mandated physical training for all students over the age of eight beginning in 1916 (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.15). High schools began training students in riflery, physical conditions, drill (marching and rifle handling), and review (standing at attention), “designed to instill discipline and obedience in future soldiers” (Pruter, 2013, p.200). Notably, Plattsburg Barracks, a military training camp for civilians and high school and college students was founded in New York in 1913 (Pruter, 2013, p.203). Concurrently the Wyoming Plan was gaining popularity in high schools. Under this plan, students were separated into units that would engage in year-round competitions to give students an understanding of military life (Pruter, 2013, p.204).  Military sports developed alongside military training in schools and included fencing, riflery, and polo. Like training, military sports intended to fuel boys with “the desire for victory and create a common bond” between them (Pruter, 2013, p.201). Military training reveals the importance placed on young boys to serve the country through their strength, endurance, obedience, and overall military prowess.

Physical education advocates contested the effectiveness of military training because it was believed to “kill initiative” and teach boys “implicit obedience… the worst habit a boy can acquire” (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.17). Proponents of physical education encouraged traits of “toughness” and “discipline” to develop good soldiers without “the servile attitudes identified with militarism (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.19). By 1919, states were quickly adopting physical education laws and prioritizing athletics in public schools. By 1930, 36 states had laws involving physical education in schools (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.23). Educators avoided militarism and instead “proclaimed sports as the medium for soldierly qualities of loyalty, self-sacrifice, and group spirit” (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.24). Team sports such as football and basketball were promoted because they were thought to invoke competition while demonstrating team spirit and cooperation. Cooperation involves working with others while also accepting assignments from one’s superior (O’Hanlon, 1982, p.6). Physical education and team sports emphasized the value of obedience with critical thinking, self-sacrifice, and most importantly, loyalty in young boys during the 20^th century. 

Desirable Traits in Young Boys

Loyalty was the most desired trait in young boys, citizens, and soldiers during World War I. Loyalty was inspired in young boys by the goals of serving the nation and fighting for its successes. Field days were common sporting events organized by different playgrounds that directly inspired nationality in young boys. Field days displayed the trained precision and unity in children that signified their commitment to physical tasks that prepared them to best serve their nation (Gagen, 2004, p. 436).   Play organizers were also prominent advocates of team sports because of their role in instilling a sense of loyalty in young boys. Team sports forced children to develop a conscience for their team and to recognize goals and efforts that extended beyond one’s individual agenda (Cavallo, 1981, p.94). Additionally, play organizers believed “subordination and self-sacrifice transcended utilitarian motives like the desire for victory” (Cavallo, 1981, p.94). Physical education and play organizers both recognized the importance of subordination. While military training physically prepared boys for war, sports engrained a “cooperative attitude” and spirit into boys that were just as important to the group as his physical capabilities. “This type of loyalty is the same thing we call good citizenship as applied to the city, that we call patriotism as applied to the country” (Cavallo, 1981, p.94).

Gender and Sports

The shaping of American boys through sports during the World War I era cannot be understood without addressing the severe gender stereotypes in sports. The women’s movement was in full swing by the late 19^th century and posed a threat to men’s institutional power (Messner, 1994, p.14). Men maintained their dominance through their “superior” physicality and violence. During this time, combat sports like boxing gained popularity as a form of “masculine backlash against feminism” (Messner, 1994, p.15). This development shaped the view of sports as a form of male domination and power. Sports are now recognized as a social institution because of their ties to social values and power structures (Messner, 1994, p.10). The World War I era also marked the intertwining of military and athletic institutions and their shared cultures. Military and athletic settings both associated manhood with ‘aggressive physicality’ (Burstyn, 2016, pp.67-69). Sports were catered towards boys and reinforced masculine expectations and therefore left little room for female participation.

The expectations for American men have changed throughout history. These expectations significantly shape the development of boys. While the 18^th century defined ideal manhood with traits like “usefulness” and a “favourable relationship with God”, the 19^th century marked a shift to traits like aggression and competitiveness (Burstyn, 2016, p.69). These traits were manifested in physical education, military training, and team sports during World War I. Studying physical training programs during World War I reveals the construction of boyhood and the correlation between developing proper men, citizens, and soldiers in the US. The intense masculinity associated with physical training and sports has caused girls to be continuously left out of these activities.