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Radzilowski, J. (2007). Fecund Newcomers or Dying Ethnics? Demographic Approaches to the History of Polish and Italian Immigrants and Their Children in the United States, 1880 to 1980. Journal of American Ethnic History, 27(1), 60–74. https://doi.org/10.2307/40543255

In the 1960s, the re-settled immigrants in the U.S. saw an increase in births among Polish and Italian immigrants coinciding closely with the peak years of immigration to the United States (Radzilowski, 2007). Families with more children might have relied on the additional income that working children could provide to support the household. This dynamic was especially common in immigrant families who faced economic hardships and lacked access to social safety nets. At the same time, larger families might have influenced how childhood was perceived and valued. In some cases, children were expected to contribute to the family’s livelihood from an early age, which shaped their roles and responsibilities within the family and society. This interplay of fertility rates, economic conditions, and cultural attitudes toward work and childhood contributed to the prevalence of child labor among immigrant populations during that period.

Gratton, B., & Moen, J. (2004). Immigration, Culture, and Child Labor in the United States, 1880–1920. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 34(3), 355–391. https://doi.org./10.1162/002219504771997890

This figure shows the proportion of boys versus girls with work shows among Hispanics, Natives, and Irish population in the U.S. highlighting the Irish immigrant population with the most child laborers.

These Social Explorer maps illustrate the distribution of immigrant children born in 1910 and 1930 across the United States. The data shows that the majority of “foreign-born” populations were concentrated in the north-central regions, with fewer births recorded in the South. This pattern can be attributed to the limited job opportunities for immigrant families in the South, despite its larger cities. As a result, more immigrant families settled in the northern U.S. during the early 20th century, where industrial and economic opportunities were more abundant.