|Home |Introduction|Data & Analysis |Conclusion |Sources|

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, waves of European immigrants came to the United States of America in hopes of starting a new and better life. Europeans arrived in the U.S. aboard large ships, enduring long weeks of travel in cramped, unhygienic conditions, all driven by big dreams and ambitions (Freedman, 1995 p.4). The term “American Dream” was established with the idea that anyone can succeed in the U.S. with upward mobility and enough economic success to lead a comfortable life. With minimal income entering the country, immigrant families sought additional ways to support themselves. This gave rise to the social practice of child labor among children of immigrants as did the belief that labor was virtuous and good for children. Scholars have defined child labor as the employment of young children, often from poor families, in industries like factories, mines, and agriculture, where they work long hours in unsafe conditions for low wages, harming their development and education (Gratton, B., & Moen, J. ). This literature review is thematically organized, focusing on child labor as additional contribution to family income. It explores conceptual factors such as socioeconomic status and demographics that influenced the adoption or rejection of child labor, the role of afternoon classes in shaping children’s experiences, gender roles, and the deteriorating health conditions of immigrant child workers. 

Demographics and socieconomics influence the need for child labor 

The demographics and socioeconomic status of immigrant child workers offer valuable insight into child labor and the prevailing notions of childhood during that time. Jensen Ruggles explores the ethnic and cultural backgrounds of immigrant families and their impact on whether children worked. For many Italian immigrant families, property was considered a secure investment a tangible asset that could be passed down through generations. This mindset led to more Italian children entering the workforce, with their earnings used to generate a surplus that would help fulfill the goal of property ownership, either in Italy or in American cities (Ruggles, 2001, p. 11). Families with higher incomes were generally ten to fifteen percent less likely to rely on child labor (Ruggles, 2001, p. 13). This suggests it is more likely that children’s labor and income enhanced parental and family success, raising poorer families on the relative scale of the time (Gratton & Moen, 2004). Ultimately, the practice of child labor varied across immigrant populations, resulting in different childhood experiences influenced by contrasting views on childhood itself. For some, childhood was seen as a special, innocent phase of life, distinct from adulthood, while for others, childhood was viewed as a preparatory stage for adult responsibilities through child labor.

Afternoon classes explain children’s space

In poorer immigrant families, the focus on work over education meant that children working in the mills often worked eleven to twelve-hour days, six days a week, starting as young as five years old. This left no time for schooling in the mornings, and the afternoons were consumed by work. As a result, evenings became the only opportunity for these children to further their education. In response, the government established “night schools” to offer basic education to working children. 

Hine, L. (1909). “Working Girls of all Nationalities Making the Best of the Spare Evening Hours.” 

The night schools were very successful. By 1900 more than 845 night schools operated in 145 cities and towns, with a total enrollment of at least 203,000 students (Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1900). Linda Carter (2010) states “in Holyoke, Lowell, and Salem, Massachusetts, evening school enrollment represented 15%, 14%, and 11% (respectively) of total public school enrollment.” Additionally, evening school enrollment accounted for “8% of enrollment in both New York City and Philadelphia, 12% of total enrollment in Newport, and 25% of enrollment in Paterson” (Carter, 2010, p. 459). This demonstrates large numbers of night schools utilized across the nation by children. The government’s initiative to teach English and to educate immigrant children through evening schools was effective, as many children embraced these opportunities and incorporated them into their schedules after work. However, critics of evening schools highlighted challenges such as student and teacher fatigue, as well as the limited amount of instructional time. Scholarly research on night schools allows us to view them as a significant historical space for children, offering insight into the differing notions of childhood, particularly the emphasis on work over education through child labor.

Gender roles and dangerous work conditions deteriorated children’s health 

Immigrant children worked in many different locations ranging from mills, street trades, mines, and factory work. In child labor, gender roles often dictated that girls were more likely to be involved in domestic work like household chores and childcare, while boys were usually assigned to physically demanding outdoor tasks like agriculture or construction, reflecting societal gender expectations about female caregiving and male strength. This shows varied childhood experiences for different children implementing gender roles demonstrating notions of childhood. Moving on, in Child Labor by Hugh D. Hindman underscores that immigrant children in the cotton textile industry were a critical part of the labor force, helping to fuel the growth of one of America’s most significant industries. However, their labor was exploitative, and they were subjected to physical and psychological harm, with little protection under the law (Hindman, 2002, pp. 152-156). Following the health of children, Lewis Wickes Hine’s photos captured the difficult conditions children faced, often working long hours in dangerous jobs, and highlighted health conditions. 

Hine, L. (1909). “Johnnie Yellow, a young Polish berry picker on Bottomley farm, Rock Creek, near Baltimore, Md. Says he is 10 years old and has gone to Biloxi, Miss. for 9 years (with family) and has worked there in winter and here in summer for three years. He is stunted, being only about 39 inches high. Ma[n]y of these children are stunted.”

This photo illustrates a child who began working at a very young age, resulting in a decline in body mass index, significant delays in physical development, and overall health deterioration. Photographs of immigrant children as child laborers highlight how these children were deprived of essential characteristics of childhood, such as play, which is crucial for cognitive, physical, social, and emotional development.Instead of experiencing the typical developmental stages of childhood, they were forced into adult responsibilities early, working to support their families.

Child labor practices varied among immigrant populations, reflecting differing priorities and notions of childhood. While some families emphasized the need to increase income, others prioritized education and allowing children to enjoy a more traditional childhood. These contrasting approaches shaped distinct childhood experiences, instilling varied goals and life lessons that influenced the children’s adult lives and the way they impacted those around them.